RSV is a significant respiratory pathogen. Acute lower respiratory tract (LRT) infection causes significant morbidity and mortality in infants and children under the age of five years worldwide [A. M. Aliyu et al. (2010), Bayero J. Pure Appl. Sci. 3(1):147-155]. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most clinically important cause of LRT infection; primary infection with RSV generally occurs by age 2 [W. P. Glezen (1987), Ped. Virol. 2:1-4; Y. Murata (2009), Clin. Lab. Med. 29(4):725-739]. Because primary RSV infection does not induce complete immunity to RSV, frequent re-infections occur throughout life, with the most severe infections developing in the very young, the very old, and in immune-compromised patients of any age [Y. Murata (2009)].
As many of 40% of those infected with RSV eventually develop serious LRT disease requiring hospitalization, with the severity and intensity of the disease depending on the magnitude and intensity of infection and the host response [Aliyu et al. (2010)]. RSV can also cause serious LRT disease in patients of any age having compromised immune, respiratory, or cardiac systems, and may also predispose children to later development of asthma. In the United States alone, RSV causes an estimated 126,000 hospitalizations and 300 infant deaths a year [Y. Murata (2009)]. Furthermore, RSV accounts for more than 80,000 hospitalizations and more than 13,000 deaths each winter among elderly patients, and those with underlying cardiopulmonary or immunosuppressive conditions [Y. Murata (2009)]. Despite the importance of RSV as a respiratory pathogen, however, there is currently no safe and effective RSV vaccine on the market.
RSV is an enveloped RNA virus of the family Paramyxoviridae, subfamily Pneumovirinae [Aliyu et al. (2010)]. Each RSV virion contains a non-segmented, negative-sense, single-stranded RNA molecule of approximately 15,191 nucleotides containing ten genes encoding eleven separate proteins (M2 contains two open reading frames), including eight structural (G, F, SH, M1, N, P, M2.1, and L) and three non-structural proteins (NS1, NS2, and M2.2) [Y. Murata (2009)]. The genome is transcribed sequentially from NS1 to L, in the following order: 3′-NS1-NS2-N-P-M1-SH-G-F-M2.1-M2.2-L-5′.
The viral envelope contains three transmembrane glycoproteins (attachment glycoprotein (G), fusion glycoprotein (F), and small hydrophobic protein (SH)), as well as the matrix (M1) protein [Y. Murata (2009)]. During RSV replication, the virus first attaches to the target cell in a process mediated by the heavily glycosylated G protein. The virus then fuses with the host cell in a process mediated by the F protein, thereby penetrating the cell membrane and entering the host cell; the F protein is also required for the formation of the syncytia characteristic of RSV-infected cells. The attachment and fusion processes are augmented by SH protein. The M1 protein regulates the assembly of mature RSV by interacting with the envelope proteins F and G and with the nucleocapsid proteins N, P, and M2.1 (see below). Within the envelope, viral RNA is encapsidated by a transcriptase complex consisting of the nucleocapsid protein (N), phosphoprotein (P), transcription elongation factor (M2.1) and RNA polymerase (L) proteins [Y. Murata (2009)]. N associates with the genomic RNA, while P is a cofactor for L, the viral RNA polymerase. M2.1 is an elongation factor necessary for viral transcription, and M2.2 regulates transcription of the viral genome. Finally, NS1 and NS2 inhibit type I interferon activity.
Clinical RSV isolates are classified according to antigenic group (A or B) and further subdivided into multiple genotypes (e.g., A2 or ALong for the A group; and B1, CH-18537, or 8/60 for the B group) based on the genetic variability within the viral genome of each antigenic group [Y. Murata (2009)]. Classification is based on the reactivity of the viruses with monoclonal antibodies directed against the attachment glycoprotein (G protein) and by various genetic analyses. [M. Sato et al., J. Clin. Microbiol. 43(1):36-40 (2005)]. Among viral isolates, some RSV-encoded proteins are highly conserved at the level of amino acid sequence (e.g., F), while others vary extensively (e.g., G) between and within the two major antigenic groups [Y. Murata (2009)]. The F proteins from the A and B antigenic groups share considerable homology. In contrast, the G protein differs considerably between the two antigenic groups.
The G protein is the most variable RSV protein, with its hypervariable C-terminal region accounting for most of the strain-specific epitopes. The molecular epidemiology and evolutionary patterns of G protein have provided important information about the clinical and epidemiological features of RSV. Typically several different genotypes circulate at once, and the one that predominates in a community every year may change. However, the importance of strain diversity to the clinical and epidemiological features of RSV remains poorly understood. Recombinant RSV proteins are therefore accompanied by a strain designation to indicate the original RSV strain from which the gene or protein was cloned. For example, a cloned G protein from RSV strain ALong is designated G(ALong), RSV ALong G, or RSV ALong G protein.
RSV stimulates a variety of immune responses in infected hosts, including the secretion of chemokines and cytokines, production of neutralizing humoral and mucosal antibodies, and production of CD4+ (e.g., TH1 and TH2) and CD8+ (e.g., CTL) T-cells. Such host immune responses are largely responsible for the clinical manifestations of RSV infection, since the virus causes limited cell cytopathology in vivo [Y. Murata (2009)]. The phenotypic manifestations and severity of RSV-induced disease are apparently mediated by the balance and interactions among the range of immune responses stimulated by RSV infection [Y. Murata (2009)].
Many previous studies suggest that the cellular and humoral immune responses play different roles in the induction of immunity to RSV and the resolution of RSV infection, as well as in disease progression [Y. Murata (2009) and references therein]. For example, studies with a humanized anti-F antibody showed that while anti-RSV antibodies are sufficient to prevent or limit the severity of infection, they are not required for clearing viral infection [Y. Murata (2009); A. F. G. Antonis et al. (2007), Vaccine 25:4818-4827]. In contrast, T-cell responses are necessary for clearing established RSV infections [Y. Murata (2009)]. The RSV-induced T-cell response also plays a key role in pulmonary pathology during infection. For example, interferon-γ (IFNγ)-secreting TH1 cells—with or without an associated CD8+ CTL response—clear RSV with minimal lung pathology, while interleukin 4 (IL-4)-secreting TH2 cells also clear RSV, but frequently accompanied by significant pulmonary changes, including eosinophilic infiltration, a hallmark of the enhanced disease observed during previous vaccine trials (see below).
Despite the abundance of information available regarding the immunology, virology, and physiology of RSV infection, however, it remains far from clear precisely what sort of immune response is likely to be most effective at inducing lasting immunity while also not producing enhanced disease on post-vaccination exposure to RSV, as discussed in more detail in the following sections.
Prior Vaccine Development
Vaccines typically use one of several strategies to induce protective immunity against a target infectious agent or pathogen (e.g., a virus, bacterium, or parasite), including: (1) inactivated pathogen preparations; (2) live attenuated pathogen preparations, including genetically attenuated pathogen strains; (3) purified protein subunit vaccine preparations; (4) viral vector-based vaccines encoding pathogen antigens and/or adjuvants; and (5) DNA-based vaccines encoding pathogen antigens.
Initial RSV vaccine development efforts focused on an inactivated virus preparation, until a clinical trial testing efficacy of a formalin-inactivated RSV (FI-RSV) vaccine was conducted in the United States during the 1960s with disastrous results [M. R. Olson & S. M. Varga (2007), J. Immunol. 179:5415-5424]. A significant number of vaccinated patients developed enhanced pulmonary disease characterized by eosinophil and neutrophil infiltrations and a substantial inflammatory response after subsequent natural infection with RSV [Olson & Varga (2007), [Blanco J C et al. (2010) Hum Vaccin. 6:482-92]. Many of those patients required hospitalization and a few critically ill patients died. Consequently, investigators began searching for viral and/or host factors contributing to the development of enhanced disease after subsequent challenge in an effort to develop a safer RSV vaccine. That search has yielded much new information about RSV biology and the broad spectrum of immune responses it can induce, but a safe and effective RSV vaccine remains elusive.
Post-FI-RSV vaccine development efforts have focused in large part on single antigen vaccines using G, F, and, to a lesser extent, N or M2, with the viral antigens delivered either by viral or plasmid DNA vectors expressing the viral genes or as purified proteins. [See, e.g., W. Olszewska et al. (2004), Vaccine 23:215-221; G. Taylor et al. (1997), J. Gen. Virol. 78:3195-3206; and L. S. Wyatt et al. (2000), Vaccine 18:392-397]. Vaccination with a combination of F+G has also been tested in calves, cotton rats and BALB/c mice with varying results [Antonis et al. (2007) (calves); B. Moss, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 06/849,299 (‘the '299 application’), filed Apr. 8, 1986 (cotton rats); and L. S. Wyatt et al. (2000) (BALB/c mice)]. Both F and G are immunogenic in calves, mice, cotton rats, humans, and to at least some degree in infant macaques [A. F. G. Antonis et al. (2007) (calves); B. Moss, the '299 application (cotton rats); L. de Waal et al. (2004), Vaccine 22:923-926 (infant macaques); L. S. Wyatt et al. (2000) (BALB/c mice); Y. Murata (2009) (humans)].
Significantly, however, the nature and type of immune response induced by RSV vaccine candidates varies—often quite considerably—depending on the type of vaccine used, the antigens selected, the route of administration, and even the model organism used. For example, immunization with live RSV or with replicating vectors encoding RSV F protein induces a dominant TH1 response accompanied by production of neutralizing anti-F antibodies and CD8+ CTLs, both associated with minimal pulmonary pathology upon post-vaccination virus challenge [Y. Murata (2009) and references cited therein]. In contrast, immunization with an FI-inactivated RSV preparation induces a dominant TH2 response completely lacking a CD8+ CTL response, which produces increased pathological changes in the lungs [Y. Murata (2009) and references cited therein]. Interestingly, the administration of RSV G protein as a purified subunit vaccine or in a replicating vector induces a dominant TH2 response eventually producing eosinophilic pulmonary infiltrates and airway hyper-reactivity following post-vaccination virus challenge, a response very similar to the enhanced disease observed with FI-RSV [Y. Murata (2009) and references cited therein]. In addition, while vaccination with modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) encoding RSV F protein induced anti-F antibodies and F-specific CD8+ T-cells in calves, vaccination with MVA-F+MVA-G induced anti-F and anti-G antibodies but no F- or G-specific CD8+ T-cells [A. F. G. Antonis et al. (2007)].
Vaccination of mice with vaccinia virus (VV) expressing F protein (VV-F) induced a strong CD8+ T-cell response which lead to clearance of replicating RSV from lung accompanied by a similar or greater weight loss than mice immunized with FI-RSV [W. Olszewska et al. (2004)]. However it was not related to the enhanced disease induced by FI-RSV or VV expressing G protein (VV-G) (combined TH2 response lung eosinophilia and weight loss) resulting from enhanced secretion of TH2 cytokines such as IL-4 and IL-5. Some in the field suggested that an RSV vaccine capable of inducing a relatively balanced immune response including both a cellular and a humoral component would be less likely to display enhanced immunopathology on post-vaccination challenge [W. Olszewska et al. (2004)].
However, while vaccination of BALB/c mice with modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) encoding F, G, or F+G induced just such a balanced immune response, including both a humoral response (i.e., a balanced IgG1 and IgG2a response) and a TH1 response (i.e., increased levels of IFNγ/interleukin-12 (IL-12) and decreased levels of interleukin-4 (IL-4)/interleukin-5 (IL-5)), vaccinated animals nevertheless still displayed some weight loss [W. Olszewska et al. (2004)].
Despite expending considerable effort to characterize the nature and extent of the immune responses induced by various vaccine candidates in several different model systems, it remains unclear precisely what sort of immune response is required to convey lasting and complete immunity to RSV without predisposing vaccine recipients to enhanced disease. Because of the marked imbalance between the clinical burden of RSV and the available therapeutic and prophylactic options, development of an RSV vaccine remains an unmet medical need.